Structural vulnerability to narcotics-driven firearm violence: An ethnographic and epidemiological study of Philadelphia’s Puerto Rican inner-city
Autoři:
Joseph Friedman aff001; George Karandinos aff002; Laurie Kain Hart aff003; Fernando Montero Castrillo aff004; Nicholas Graetz aff005; Philippe Bourgois aff001
Působiště autorů:
Center for Social Medicine and Humanities, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
aff001; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States of America
aff002; Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, United States of America
aff003; Department of Anthropology, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States of America
aff004; Department of Demography, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
aff005
Vyšlo v časopise:
PLoS ONE 14(11)
Kategorie:
Research Article
doi:
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0225376
Souhrn
Background
The United States is experiencing a continuing crisis of gun violence, and economically marginalized and racially segregated inner-city areas are among the most affected. To decrease this violence, public health interventions must engage with the complex social factors and structural drivers—especially with regard to the clandestine sale of narcotics—that have turned the neighborhood streets of specific vulnerable subgroups into concrete killing fields. Here we present a mixed-methods ethnographic and epidemiological assessment of narcotics-driven firearm violence in Philadelphia’s impoverished, majority Puerto Rican neighborhoods.
Methods
Using an exploratory sequential study design, we formulated hypotheses about ethnic/racial vulnerability to violence, based on half a dozen years of intensive participant-observation ethnographic fieldwork. We subsequently tested them statistically, by combining geo-referenced incidents of narcotics- and firearm-related crime from the Philadelphia police department with census information representing race and poverty levels. We explored the racialized relationships between poverty, narcotics, and violence, melding ethnography, graphing, and Poisson regression.
Findings
Even controlling for poverty levels, impoverished majority-Puerto Rican areas in Philadelphia are exposed to significantly higher levels of gun violence than majority-white or black neighborhoods. Our mixed methods data suggest that this reflects the unique social position of these neighborhoods as a racial meeting ground in deeply segregated Philadelphia, which has converted them into a retail endpoint for the sale of astronomical levels of narcotics.
Implications
We document racial/ethnic and economic disparities in exposure to firearm violence and contextualize them ethnographically in the lived experience of community members. The exceptionally concentrated and high-volume retail narcotics trade, and the violence it generates in Philadelphia’s poor Puerto Rican neighborhoods, reflect unique structural vulnerability and cultural factors. For most young people in these areas, the narcotics economy is the most readily accessible form of employment and social mobility. The performance of violence is an implicit part of survival in these lucrative, illegal narcotics markets, as well as in the overcrowded jails and prisons through which entry-level sellers cycle chronically. To address the structural drivers of violence, an inner-city Marshall Plan is needed that should include well-funded formal employment programs, gun control, re-training police officers to curb the routinization of brutality, reform of criminal justice to prioritize rehabilitation over punishment, and decriminalization of narcotics possession and low-level sales.
Klíčová slova:
Census – Employment – Firearms – Heroin – Homicide – Neighborhoods – Police – Violent crime
Zdroje
1. Bauchner H, Rivara FP, Bonow RO, Bressler NM, Disis ML (Nora), Heckers S, et al. Death by Gun Violence—A Public Health Crisis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2017;74: 1195–1196. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.3616 29052736
2. Malina D, Morrissey S, Campion EW, Hamel MB, Drazen JM. Rooting Out Gun Violence. New England Journal of Medicine. 2016;374: 175–176. doi: 10.1056/NEJMe1515975 26672390
3. Tracy BM, Smith RN, Miller K, Clayton E, Bailey K, Gerrin C, et al. Community distress predicts youth gun violence. J Pediatr Surg. 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2019.03.021 31072680
4. Auyero J, Bourgois P, Scheper-Hughes N. Violence at the Urban Margins. Cambridge: Oxford University Press; 2015.
5. Contreras R. The Stickup Kids: Race, Drugs, Violence, and the American Dream. Berkely, California: University of Califronia Press; 2013.
6. Iroku-Malize T, Grissom M. Violence and Public and Personal Health: Gun Violence. FP Essent. 2019;480: 16–21. 31063341
7. GBD 2016 Mortality Collaborators. Global, regional, and national under-5 mortality, adult mortality, age-specific mortality, and life expectancy, 1970–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet. 2017;390: 1084–1150. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31833-0 28919115
8. GBD Compare | IHME Viz Hub. [cited 12 Jun 2019]. Available: http://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-compare
9. Corso PS, Mercy JA, Simon TR, Finkelstein EA, Miller TR. Medical costs and productivity losses due to interpersonal and self-directed violence in the United States. Am J Prev Med. 2007;32: 474–482. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2007.02.010 17533062
10. Hemenway D, Miller M. Public Health Approach to the Prevention of Gun Violence. New England Journal of Medicine. 2013;368: 2033–2035. doi: 10.1056/NEJMsb1302631 23581254
11. Violence intervention programs: A primer for developing a comprehensive program for trauma centers. In: The Bulletin of the American College of Surgeons [Internet]. 4 Oct 2017 [cited 16 Aug 2018]. Available: http://bulletin.facs.org/2017/10/violence-intervention-programs-a-primer-for-developing-a-comprehensive-program-for-trauma-centers/
12. Jennings-Bey T, Lane SD, Rubinstein RA, Bergen-Cico D, Haygood-El A, Hudson H, et al. The Trauma Response Team: a Community Intervention for Gang Violence. J Urban Health. 2015;92: 947–954. doi: 10.1007/s11524-015-9978-8 26282564
13. Aboutanos MB, Jordan A, Cohen R, Foster RL, Goodman K, Halfond RW, et al. Brief violence interventions with community case management services are effective for high-risk trauma patients. J Trauma. 2011;71: 228–236; discussion 236–237. doi: 10.1097/TA.0b013e31821e0c86 21818029
14. Chong VE, Smith R, Garcia A, Lee WS, Ashley L, Marks A, et al. Hospital-centered violence intervention programs: a cost-effectiveness analysis. The American Journal of Surgery. 2015;209: 597–603. doi: 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2014.11.003 25728889
15. Sharkey P, Torrats-Espinosa G, Takyar D. Community and the Crime Decline: The Causal Effect of Local Nonprofits on Violent Crime. Am Sociol Rev. 2017;82: 1214–1240. doi: 10.1177/0003122417736289
16. Bourgois P, Hart LK. Commentary on Genberg et al. (2011): The structural vulnerability imposed by hypersegregated US inner-city neighborhoods—a theoretical and practical challenge for substance abuse research: Commentary. Addiction. 2011;106: 1975–1977. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03615.x 21978310
17. Farmer PE, Nizeye B, Stulac S, Keshavjee S. Structural Violence and Clinical Medicine. PLOS Medicine. 2006;3: e449. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0030449 17076568
18. Karandinos G, Bourgois P. The Structural Violence of Hyperincarceration—A 44-Year-Old Man with Back Pain. N Engl J Med. 2019;380: 205–209. doi: 10.1056/NEJMp1811542 30650324
19. Singer M, Valentín F, Baer H, Jia Z. Why does juan garcía have a drinking problem? The perspective of critical medical anthropology. Medical Anthropology. 1992;14: 77–108. doi: 10.1080/01459740.1992.9966067 1294865
20. Marmot M, Friel S, Bell R, Houweling TA, Taylor S. Closing the gap in a generation: health equity through action on the social determinants of health. The Lancet. 2008;372: 1661–1669. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61690-6
21. Bourgois P, Holmes SM, Sue K, Quesada J. Structural Vulnerability: Operationalizing the Concept to Address Health Disparities in Clinical Care. Acad Med. 2017;92: 299–307. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000001294 27415443
22. Messac L, Ciccarone D, Draine J, Bourgois P. The good-enough science-and-politics of anthropological collaboration with evidence-based clinical research: Four ethnographic case studies. Soc Sci Med. 2013;99: 176–186. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.04.009 23664236
23. Bourgois P, Martinez A, Kral A, Edlin BR, Schonberg J, Ciccarone D. Reinterpreting Ethnic Patterns among White and African American Men Who Inject Heroin: A Social Science of Medicine Approach. PLOS Medicine. 2006;3: e452. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0030452 17076569
24. Rosenblum D, Castrillo FM, Bourgois P, Mars S, Karandinos G, Unick GJ, et al. Urban segregation and the US heroin market: A quantitative model of anthropological hypotheses from an inner-city drug market. International Journal of Drug Policy. 2014;25: 543–555. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2013.12.008 24445118
25. Ozawa S, Pongpirul K. 10 best resources on … mixed methods research in health systems. Health Policy Plan. 2014;29: 323–327. doi: 10.1093/heapol/czt019 23564372
26. Anguera MT, Blanco-Villaseñor A, Losada JL, Sánchez-Algarra P, Onwuegbuzie AJ. Revisiting the difference between mixed methods and multimethods: Is it all in the name? Qual Quant. 2018;52: 2757–2770. doi: 10.1007/s11135-018-0700-2
27. Creswell JW, Clark VLP. Designing and Conducting Mixed Methods Research. SAGE Publications; 2011.
28. Karandinos G, Hart LK, Montero Castrillo F, Bourgois P. The Moral Economy of Violence in the US Inner City. Current Anthropology. 2014;55: 1–22. doi: 10.1086/674613 25067849
29. Bourgois P, Schonberg J. Righteous Dopefiend. Berkeley: University of California Press; 2009.
30. Bourgois P. In Search of Respect: Selling Crack in El Barrio. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2003.
31. Bourgois P, Hart LK, Castrillo FM, Karandinos G. The Political and Emotional Economy of Violence in the US Inner City Narcotics Markets. Ritual, Emotion, Violence: Studies on the Micro-Sociology of Randall Collins. London: Routledge; 2019. p. 32.
32. Bourgois P, Hart LK, Bourdieu S. Pax narcotica: Le marché de la drogue dans le ghetto portoricain de Philadelphie. L’Homme. 2016; 31–62. doi: 10.4000/lhomme.29017
33. Lopez AM, Bourgois P, Wenger LD, Lorvick J, Martinez AN, Kral AH. Interdisciplinary mixed methods research with structurally vulnerable populations: Case studies of injection drug users in San Francisco. International Journal of Drug Policy. 2013;24: 101–109. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2012.12.004 23312109
34. Crime Incidents—OpenDataPhilly. [cited 25 May 2019]. Available: https://www.opendataphilly.org/dataset/crime-incidents
35. American FactFinder. [cited 10 Feb 2018]. Available: https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/index.xhtml
36. Census Tracts—OpenDataPhilly. [cited 25 May 2019]. Available: https://www.opendataphilly.org/dataset/census-tracts
37. R: The R Project for Statistical Computing. [cited 10 Feb 2018]. Available: https://www.r-project.org/
38. Hart LK. “Hypersegregation and Depacification in the US Inner City: the House, the Block and the War on Drugs.” 2017 May 12; Talk presented to the Department of Anthropology, University of Helsinki,.
39. Hansen H, Bourgois P, Drucker E. Pathologizing poverty: New forms of diagnosis, disability, and structural stigma under welfare reform. Social Science & Medicine. 2014;103: 76–83. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.06.033 24507913
40. Denvir D. Why is Eric Burke still a Philly cop? In: My City Paper New York [Internet]. 30 Jan 2013 [cited 5 Jun 2019]. Available: https://mycitypaper.com/cover/why-is-eric-burke-still-a-philly-cop/
41. Ruderman W, Laker B. Busted: A Tale of Corruption and Betrayal in the City of Brotherly Love. Complete Numbers Starting with 1, 1st Ed edition. New York, NY: Harper; 2014.
42. Feldman JM, Gruskin S, Coull BA, Krieger N. Quantifying underreporting of law-enforcement-related deaths in United States vital statistics and news-media-based data sources: A capture–recapture analysis. PLOS Medicine. 2017;14: e1002399. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002399 29016598
43. Friedman J, Kim D, Schneberk T, Bourgois P, Shin M, Celious A, et al. Assessment of Racial/Ethnic and Income Disparities in the Prescription of Opioids and Other Controlled Medications in California. JAMA Internal Medicine. 2019.
44. Netherland J, Hansen H. White opioids: Pharmaceutical race and the war on drugs that wasn’t. Biosocieties. 2017;12: 217–238. doi: 10.1057/biosoc.2015.46 28690668
45. Arbuckle A. May 13, 1985 The bombing of MOVE: When the police dropped a bomb on a quiet Philly neighborhood. In: Mashable [Internet]. [cited 5 Jun 2019]. Available: https://mashable.com/2016/01/10/1985-move-bombing/
46. Boyette M, Boyette R. Let It Burn: MOVE, the Philadelphia Police Department, and the Confrontation That Changed a City. San Diego, CA: Endpapers Press; 2013.
47. Hari J. Chasing the scream: the first and last days of the war on drugs. New York: Bloomsbury; 2015.
48. Alexander M. The new Jim Crow: mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. New York: The New Press; 2010.
49. Marmot M. A health crisis is a social crisis. BMJ. 2019;365: l2278. doi: 10.1136/bmj.l2278 31126977
50. Krieger N. Methods for the Scientific Study of Discrimination and Health: An Ecosocial Approach. Am J Public Health. 2012;102: 936–944. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2011.300544 22420803
51. Metzl JM. Dying of Whiteness: How the Politics of Racial Resentment Is Killing America’s Heartland. New York: Basic Books; 2019.
52. Shaw J. Report: DA Krasner ‘very close’ to rolling out policy decriminalizing drug possession. 8 May 2019 [cited 10 Jun 2019]. Available: https://www.inquirer.com/news/philadelphia-district-attorney-larry-krasner-drug-possession-20190508.html
53. Gonnerman J. Larry Krasner’s Campaign to End Mass Incarceration. In: The New Yorker [Internet]. 22 Oct 2018 [cited 10 Jun 2019]. Available: https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/10/29/larry-krasners-campaign-to-end-mass-incarceration
54. Neil E. DA Krasner enacts new vision for criminal justice system in Philadelphia. In: AL DÍA News [Internet]. 4 Apr 2019 [cited 10 Jun 2019]. Available: https://aldianews.com/articles/politics/state-and-local/da-krasner-enacts-new-vision-criminal-justice-system-philadelphia
55. Khan R, Khazaal Y, Thorens G, Zullino D, Uchtenhagen A. Understanding Swiss drug policy change and the introduction of heroin maintenance treatment. Eur Addict Res. 2014;20: 200–207. doi: 10.1159/000357234 24513780
Článek vyšel v časopise
PLOS One
2019 Číslo 11
- Tisícileté topoly, mokří psi, stárnoucí kočky a ospalé octomilky – „jednohubky“ z výzkumu 2024/41
- Jaké jsou aktuální trendy v léčbě karcinomu slinivky?
- Může hubnutí souviset s vyšším rizikem nádorových onemocnění?
- Menstruační krev má značný diagnostický potenciál, mimo jiné u diabetu
- Metamizol jako analgetikum první volby: kdy, pro koho, jak a proč?
Nejčtenější v tomto čísle
- A daily diary study on maladaptive daydreaming, mind wandering, and sleep disturbances: Examining within-person and between-persons relations
- A 3’ UTR SNP rs885863, a cis-eQTL for the circadian gene VIPR2 and lincRNA 689, is associated with opioid addiction
- A substitution mutation in a conserved domain of mammalian acetate-dependent acetyl CoA synthetase 2 results in destabilized protein and impaired HIF-2 signaling
- Molecular validation of clinical Pantoea isolates identified by MALDI-TOF
Zvyšte si kvalifikaci online z pohodlí domova
Všechny kurzy