Black people are convicted more for being black than for being poor: The role of social norms and cultural prejudice on biased racial judgments

English version

Autoři: Tiago Jessé Souza de Lima ^aff001; Cicero Roberto Pereira ^aff002; Ana Raquel Rosas Torres ^aff002; Luana Elayne Cunha de Souza ^aff001; Iara Maribondo Albuquerque ^aff002
Působiště autorů: Department of Psychology, Universidade de Fortaleza, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil ^aff001; Department of Psychology, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil ^aff002; Institute of Social Sciences, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal ^aff003
Vyšlo v časopise: PLoS ONE 14(9)
Kategorie: Research Article
doi: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222874

Souhrn

Black and poor people are more frequently convicted of committing crimes. However, the specific role played by skin color and social class in convicting a person has yet to be clarified. This article aims to elucidate this issue by proposing that belonging to a lower social class facilitates the conviction of black targets and that this phenomenon is because information about social class dissimulates racial bias. Study 1 (N = 160) demonstrated that information about belonging to the lower classes increases agreement with a criminal suspect being sentenced to prison only when described as being black. Furthermore, Studies 2 (N = 170) and 3 (N = 174) show that the anti-prejudice norm inhibits discrimination against the black target when participants were asked to express individual racial prejudice, but not when they expressed cultural racial prejudice. Finally, Study 4 (N = 134) demonstrated that lower-class black targets were discriminated against to a greater degree when participants expressed either individual or cultural prejudice and showed that this occurs when racial and class anti-prejudice norms are salient. The results suggest that social class negatively affects judgments of black targets because judgment based on lower class mitigates the racist motivation of discrimination.

Klíčová slova:

Social sciences – Sociology – Social discrimination – Racial discrimination – Culture – Social stratification – Criminology – Crime – Law and legal sciences – Criminal justice system – Prisons – Motivation – People and places – Population groupings – Ethnicities – European people – Portuguese people – Biology and life sciences – Psychology – Behavior – Neuroscience – Cognitive science – Cognitive psychology

Zdroje

1. Da Silva RF, Oliveira Lima ME. Crime and Punishment: The Impact of Skin Color and Socioeconomic Status of Defendants and Victims in Jury Trials in Brazil. Span J Psychol. 2016;19: 1–11. doi: 10.1017/sjp.2016.77 27841106

2. Nellis A. The Color of Justice: Racial and Ethnic Disparity in State Prisons [Internet]. The Sentencing Project. 2016. http://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/color-of-justice-racial-and-ethnic-disparity-in-state-prisons/

3. Vala J, Lopes D, Lima M. Black Immigrants in Portugal: Luso–Tropicalism and Prejudice. 2008; 64:287–302. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4560.2008.00562.x

4. Henriques JG. A justiça em Portugal é “mais dura” para os negros. Publico. 2017. https://www.publico.pt/2017/08/19/sociedade/noticia/a-justica-em-portugal-e-mais-dura-para-os-negros-1782487

5. Dolan K, Carr J. The Poor Get Prison. Inst Policy Stud. 2015; 1–35.

6. Pettit B, Western B. Mass Imprisonment and the Life Course. Am Sociol Rev. 2004;69: 151–169.

7. Western B, Pettit B. Incarceration & social inequality. Dædalus. 2010; 8–19. 21032946

8. Pettigrew TF. The Social Science Study of American Race Relations in the Twentieth Century. Soc Personal Psychol Compass. 2008;2: 318–345. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00061.x

9. Mattan BD, Kubota JT, Li T, Venezia SA, Cloutier J. Implicit Evaluative Biases Toward Targets Varying in Race and Socioeconomic Status. Personal Soc Psychol Bull. 2019; doi: 10.1177/0146167219835230 30902032

10. Moore-Berg SL, Karpinski A. An intersectional approach to understanding how race and social class affect intergroup processes. Soc Personal Psychol Compass. 2019;13: 1–14. doi: 10.1111/spc3.12426

11. Bureau UC. Wealth and Asset Ownership [Internet]. 2014. http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2011/07/SDT-Wealth-Report_7-26-11_FINAL.pdf

12. Fiske ST, Cuddy AC, Glick P, Xu J. A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2002;82: 878–902. 12051578

13. Jones JM. Prejudice and racism. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1972.

14. Weeks M, Lupfer MB. Complicating race: The relationship between prejudice, race, and social class categorizations. Personal Soc Psychol Bull. 2004;30.

15. Cooley E, Brown-Iannuzzi JL, Lei RF, Cipolli W. Complex intersections of race and class: Among social liberals, learning about White privilege reduces sympathy, increases blame, and decreases external attributions for White people struggling with poverty. J Exp Psychol Gen. 2019; doi: 10.1037/xge0000605 31033321

16. Moore-Berg S, Karpinski A, Plant EA. Quick to the draw: How suspect race and socioeconomic status influences shooting decisions. J Appl Soc Psychol. 2017;47: 482–491. doi: 10.1111/jasp.12454

17. Crisp RC, Hewstone M. Multiple Social Categorization. New York: Psychology Press; 2006.

18. Nicolas G, de la Fuente M, Fiske ST. Mind the overlap in multiple categorization: A review of crossed categorization, intersectionality, and multiracial perception. Gr Process Intergr Relations. 2017;20: 621–631. doi: 10.1177/1368430217708862

19. Dovidio JF, Gaertner SL. Aversive racism. In: Zanna MP, editor. Advances in experimental social psychology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 2004. pp. 1–51.

20. Pereira C, Vala J, Costa-Lopes R. From prejudice to discrimination: The legitimizing role of perceived threat in discrimination against immigrants. Eur J Soc Psychol. 2010;40: 1231–1250.

21. Sherif M. Social interaction: process and products. Social interaction: process and products. Oxford, England: Aldine; 1967.

22. Pettigrew TF, Meertens RW. Subtle and blatant prejudice in Western Europe. Eur J Soc Psychol. 1995;25: 57–75.

23. Apfelbaum EP, Sommers SR, Norton MI. Seeing Race and Seeming Racist? Evaluating Strategic Colorblindness in Social Interaction. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2008;95: 918–932. doi: 10.1037/a0011990 18808268

24. Plant EA, Devine PG. Internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1998;75: 811–832.

25. Mattan BD, Kubota JT, Dang TP, Cloutier J. External motivation to avoid prejudice alters neural responses to targets varying in race and status. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2018;13: 22–31. doi: 10.1093/scan/nsx128 29077925

26. Norton MI, Sommers SR, Apfelbaum EP, Pura N, Ariely D. Color Blindness and Interracial Interaction. Psychol Sci. 2006;17: 949–953. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01810.x 17176425

27. Dovidio JF, Gaertner SL. Aversive racism and selection decisions: 1989 and 1999. Psychol Sci. 2000;11: 315–319. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.00262 11273391

28. Vala J, Pereira C, Lima ME, Leyens J-P. Intergroup time bias in racialised social relations. Personal Soc Psychol Bull. 2012;

29. Gaertner SL, Dovidio JF. Aversive racism. Adv Exp Soc Psychol. 2004;36: 2601.

30. Hodson G, Dovidio JF, Gaertner SL. Processes in racial discrimination: Differential weighting of conflicting information. Personal Soc Psychol Bull. 2002;28: 460–471.

31. Costa-Lopes R, Dovidio JF, Pereira CR, Jost JT. Social psychological perspectives on the legitimation of social inequality: Past, present and future. Eur J Soc Psychol. 2013;43: 229–237. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.1966

32. Chateignier C, Dutrévis M, Nugier A, Chekroun P. French-arab students and verbal intellectual performance: Do they really suffer from a negative intellectual stereotype? Eur J Psychol Educ. 2009;24: 219–234. doi: 10.1007/BF03173013

33. Devine PG. Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1989;56: 5–18.

34. Camino L, Silva P, Machado A, Pereira RC. A face oculta do racismo no Brasil: Uma análise psicossociológica. Rev Psicol Política. 2001;1: 13–36.

35. Nunes AVDL. Justice Seems Not to Be For All : The Role Played by Justice Perceptions in Discrimination against Immigrants Aline Vieira de Lima Nunes. ISCTE/IUL. 2013.

36. Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale: Erbaum; 1988.

37. Faul F, Erdfelder E, Lang A-G, Buchner A. G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behav Res Methods. 2007;39: 175–191. doi: 10.3758/BF03193146 17695343

38. Zhang Z, Yuan KH. Practical Statistical Power Analysis Using Webpower and R. Granger: ISDSA Press; 2018.

39. Galobardes B, Shaw M, Lawlor DA, Lynch JW, Smith GD. Indicators of socioeconomic position (part 1). J Epidemiol Community Health. 2006;60: 7–12. doi: 10.1136/jech.2004.023531 16361448

40. Van Doesum NJ, Tybur JM, Van Lange PAM. Class impressions: Higher social class elicits lower prosociality. J Exp Soc Psychol. 2017;68: 11–20. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2016.06.001

41. Hinzman L, Maddox KB. Conceptual and visual representations of racial categories: Distinguishing subtypes from subgroups. J Exp Soc Psychol. Elsevier Inc.; 2017;70: 95–109. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2016.12.012

42. O’Brien JD. The Interaction of Race and Social Status in Determining Discrimination. University of Maryland. 2012.

43. Crandall CS, Eshleman A, O’Brien LT. Social norms and the expression and suppression of prejudice: The struggle for internalization. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2002;82: 359–378. 11902622

44. De França DX, Monteiro MB. Social norms and the expression of prejudice: The development of aversive racism in childhood. Eur J Soc Psychol. 2013;43: 263–271. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.1965

45. McDonald RI, Crandall CS. Social norms and social influence. Curr Opin Behav Sci. Elsevier Ltd; 2015;3: 147–151. doi: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2015.04.006

46. de Souza LEC, Pereira CR, Camino L, de Lima TJS, Torres ARR. The legitimizing role of accent on discrimination against immigrants. Eur J Soc Psychol. 2016;46. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.2216

47. Pereira CR, Álvaro JL, Vala J. The Ego-Defensive Role of Legitimacy: How Threat-Based Justifications Protect the Self-Esteem of Discriminators. Personal Soc Psychol Bull. 2018;44: 1473–1486. doi: 10.1177/0146167218771007 29739296

48. Weeks K, Weeks M, Frost L. The role of race and social class in compensation decisions. J Manag Psychol. 2007;22: 701–718. doi: 10.1108/02683940710820118

49. Klauer KC, Ehrenberg K, Wegener I. Crossed categorization and stereotyping: Structural analyses, effect patterns, and dissociative effects of context relevance. J Exp Soc Psychol. 2003;39: 332–354. doi: 10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00017-9

50. Valentim JP, Heleno AM. Luso-tropicalism as a social representation in Portuguese society: Variations and anchoring. International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 2018;62: 34–42. doi: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2017.04.013

51. WIlson WJ. The declining significance of race: Blacks and changing American institutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 1978.

52. Osorio RG. A Mobilidade Social Dos Negros Brasileiros [Internet]. 2004. http://www.ipea.gov.br

53. Ribeiro CAC. Class, Race, and Social Mobility in Brazil. Discrim an Unequal World. 2010;3: 1–29.

54. Smedley A, Smedley BD. Race as biology is fiction, racism as a social problem is real : Anthropological and historical perspectives on the social construction of race. Am Psychol. 2005;60: 16–26. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.60.1.16 15641918

55. Silva GM. After racial democracy: Contemporary puzzles in race relations in Brazil, Latin America and beyond from a boundaries perspective. Current Sociology. 2015;64:794–812. doi: 10.1177/0011392115590488

56. Tajfel H, Turner JC. An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In: Austin WG, Worchel S, editors. The social psychology of intergroup relations. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole; 1979. pp. 33–47.

57. Antonakis J, Eubanks DL. Looking Leadership in the Face. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2017;26: 270–275. doi: 10.1177/0963721417705888

58. Wilson JP, Rule NO. Facial Trustworthiness Predicts Extreme Criminal-Sentencing Outcomes. Psychol Sci. 2015;26: 1325–1331. doi: 10.1177/0956797615590992 26162847

Black people are convicted more for being black than for being poor: The role of social norms and cultural prejudice on biased racial judgments

Souhrn

Klíčová slova:

Zdroje

PLOS One

INSIGHTS from European Respiratory Congress

Současné pohledy na riziko v parodontologii

Svět praktické medicíny 3/2024 (znalostní test z časopisu)

Kardiologické projevy hypereozinofilií

Střevní příprava před kolonoskopií