Perceived relative social status and cognitive load influence acceptance of unfair offers in the Ultimatum Game
Autoři:
Alison Harris aff001; Aleena Young aff001; Livia Hughson aff003; Danielle Green aff002; Stacey N. Doan aff001; Eric Hughson aff004; Catherine L. Reed aff001
Působiště autorů:
Department of Psychological Science, Claremont McKenna College, Claremont, California, United States of America
aff001; Division of Behavioral & Social Sciences, Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, California, United States of America
aff002; The Webb Schools, Claremont, California, United States of America
aff003; Robert Day School of Economics & Finance, Claremont McKenna College, Claremont, California, United States of America
aff004
Vyšlo v časopise:
PLoS ONE 15(1)
Kategorie:
Research Article
doi:
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227717
Souhrn
Participants in the Ultimatum Game will often reject unfair resource allocations at personal cost, reflecting a trade-off between financial gain and maintenance of social standing. Although this rejection behavior is linked to executive control, the exact role of cognitive regulation in relation to status cues is unclear. We propose that the salience of status cues affects how cognitive regulation resolves the conflict between financial gain and social status considerations. Situations that tax executive control by limiting available cognitive resources should increase acceptance rates for unfair offers, particularly when the conflict between economic self-interest and social reputation is high. Here, participants rated their own subjective social status, and then either mentally counted (Load) or ignored (No Load) simultaneously-presented tones while playing two rounds of the Ultimatum Game with an online (sham) “Proposer” of either high or low social status. A logistic regression revealed an interaction of Proposer status with cognitive load. Compared to the No Load group, the Load group showed higher acceptance rates for unfair offers from the high-status Proposer. In contrast, cognitive load did not influence acceptance rates for unfair offers from the low-status Proposer. Additionally, Proposer status interacted with the relative social distance between participant and Proposer. Participants close in social distance to the high-status Proposer were more likely to accept the unfair offer than those farther in social distance, whereas the opposite pattern was observed for offers from the low-status Proposer. Although rejection of unfair offers in the Ultimatum Game has previously been conceptualized as an intuitive response, these results instead suggest it reflects a deliberative strategy, dependent on cognitive resources, to prioritize social standing over short-term financial gain. This study reveals the dynamic interplay of cognitive resources and status concerns within this paradigm, providing new insights into when and why people reject inequitable divisions of resources.
Klíčová slova:
Behavior – Cognition – Cognitive psychology – Finance – Prefrontal cortex – Social status – Surveys – Ultimatum game
Zdroje
1. Rabin M. Incorporating fairness into game theory and economics. The American economic review. 1993:1281–302.
2. Fehr E, Schmidt KM. A theory of fairness, competition, and cooperation. The quarterly journal of economics. 1999;114(3):817–68.
3. Bolton GE, Ockenfels A. ERC: A theory of equity, reciprocity, and competition. American economic review. 2000;90(1):166–93.
4. Camerer CF. Behavioral game theory: Experiments in strategic interaction: Princeton University Press; 2003.
5. Henrich J. In Search of Homo Economicus: Behavioral Experiments in 15 Small-Scale Societies. American Economic Review. 2001;91(2):73–8. http://www.aeaweb.org/aer/. Partial authors List.
6. Nowak MA, Page KM, Sigmund K. Fairness versus reason in the ultimatum game. Science. 2000;289(5485):1773–5. doi: 10.1126/science.289.5485.1773 10976075
7. Kagel JH, Kim C, Moser D. Fairness in ultimatum games with asymmetric information and asymmetric payoffs. Games and Economic Behavior. 1996;13(1):100–10.
8. Hallsson BG, Siebner HR, Hulme OJ. Fairness, fast and slow: A review of dual process models of fairness. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2018;89:49–60. Epub 2018/02/28. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.02.016 29486224.
9. Sanfey AG, Loewenstein G, McClure SM, Cohen JD. Neuroeconomics: cross-currents in research on decision-making. Trends in cognitive sciences. 2006;10(3):108–16. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2006.01.009 16469524
10. Sanfey AG, Rilling JK, Aronson JA, Nystrom LE, Cohen JD. The neural basis of economic decision-making in the Ultimatum Game. Science. 2003;300(5626):1755–8. Epub 2003/06/14. doi: 10.1126/science.1082976 12805551.
11. Kirk U, Downar J, Montague PR. Interoception drives increased rational decision-making in meditators playing the ultimatum game. Front Neurosci. 2011;5:49. Epub 2011/05/12. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2011.00049 21559066.
12. De Neys W, Novitskiy N, Geeraerts L, Ramautar J, Wagemans J. Cognitive control and individual differences in economic ultimatum decision-making. PloS one. 2011;6(11):e27107. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0027107 22096522
13. Calvillo DP, Burgeno JN. Cognitive reflection predicts the acceptance of unfair ultimatum game offers. Judgment & Decision Making. 2015;10(4).
14. Rand DG. Cooperation, fast and slow: Meta-analytic evidence for a theory of social heuristics and self-interested deliberation. Psychological science. 2016;27(9):1192–206. doi: 10.1177/0956797616654455 27422875
15. Cappelletti D, Güth W, Ploner M. Being of two minds: an ultimatum experiment investigating affective processes. Jena economic research papers, 2008.
16. Achtziger A, Alós-Ferrer C, Wagner AK. The impact of self-control depletion on social preferences in the ultimatum game. Journal of Economic Psychology. 2016;53:1–16.
17. Halali E, Bereby-Meyer Y, Meiran N. Between self-interest and reciprocity: the social bright side of self-control failure. J Exp Psychol Gen. 2014;143(2):745–54. Epub 2013/07/31. doi: 10.1037/a0033824 23895346.
18. Achtziger A, Alós-Ferrer C, Wagner AK. Social preferences and self-control. Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics. 2018;74:161–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2018.04.009.
19. Krajbich I, Bartling B, Hare T, Fehr E. Rethinking fast and slow based on a critique of reaction-time reverse inference. Nat Commun. 2015;6:7455. doi: 10.1038/ncomms8455 26135809.
20. Hare TA, Camerer CF, Rangel A. Self-control in decision-making involves modulation of the vmPFC valuation system. Science. 2009;324(5927):646–8. Epub 2009/05/02. doi: 10.1126/science.1168450 19407204.
21. Harris A, Hare T, Rangel A. Temporally dissociable mechanisms of self-control: early attentional filtering versus late value modulation. J Neurosci. 2013;33(48):18917–31. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5816-12.2013 24285897.
22. Figner B, Knoch D, Johnson EJ, Krosch AR, Lisanby SH, Fehr E, et al. Lateral prefrontal cortex and self-control in intertemporal choice. Nat Neurosci. 2010;13(5):538–9. doi: 10.1038/nn.2516 20348919.
23. Luo S, Ainslie G, Pollini D, Giragosian L, Monterosso JR. Moderators of the association between brain activation and farsighted choice. Neuroimage. 2012;59(2):1469–77. Epub 2011/08/23. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.08.004 21856429.
24. Hare TA, Hakimi S, Rangel A. Activity in dlPFC and its effective connectivity to vmPFC are associated with temporal discounting. Front Neurosci. 2014;8:50. Epub 2014/03/29. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2014.00050 24672421.
25. Tusche A, Hutcherson CA. Cognitive regulation alters social and dietary choice by changing attribute representations in domain-general and domain-specific brain circuits. eLife. 2018;7:e31185. doi: 10.7554/eLife.31185 29813018
26. Liberman N, Trope Y. The psychology of transcending the here and now. Science. 2008;322(5905):1201–5. Epub 2008/11/22. doi: 10.1126/science.1161958 19023074.
27. Knoch D, Pascual-Leone A, Meyer K, Treyer V, Fehr E. Diminishing reciprocal fairness by disrupting the right prefrontal cortex. Science. 2006;314(5800):829–32. Epub 2006/10/07. doi: 10.1126/science.1129156 17023614.
28. Baumgartner T, Knoch D, Hotz P, Eisenegger C, Fehr E. Dorsolateral and ventromedial prefrontal cortex orchestrate normative choice. Nat Neurosci. 2011;14(11):1468–74. doi: 10.1038/nn.2933 21964488.
29. Camerer CF, Thaler RH. Anomalies: Ultimatums, dictators and manners. Journal of Economic perspectives. 1995;9(2):209–19.
30. Bahry DL, Wilson RK. Confusion or fairness in the field? Rejections in the ultimatum game under the strategy method. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization. 2006;60(1):37–54.
31. Yamagishi T, Horita Y, Mifune N, Hashimoto H, Li Y, Shinada M, et al. Rejection of unfair offers in the ultimatum game is no evidence of strong reciprocity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2012;109(50):20364–8.
32. Loewenstein GF, Bazerman MH, Thompson L. Social Utility and Decision-Making in Interpersonal Contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1989;57(3):426–41.
33. Tricomi E, Rangel A, Camerer CF, O’Doherty JP. Neural evidence for inequality-averse social preferences. Nature. 2010;463(7284):1089–91. Epub 2010/02/26. doi: 10.1038/nature08785 20182511.
34. Fiddick L, Cummins D. Are perceptions of fairness relationship-specific? The case of noblesse oblige. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 2007;60(1):16–31. doi: 10.1080/17470210600577266 17162505
35. Valenzuela A, Srivastava J. Role of information asymmetry and situational salience in reducing intergroup bias: the case of ultimatum games. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 2012;38(12):1671–83. Epub 2012/09/08. doi: 10.1177/0146167212458327 22956295.
36. Mendoza SA, Lane SP, Amodio DM. For members only: Ingroup punishment of fairness norm violations in the ultimatum game. Social Psychological and Personality Science. 2014;5(6):662–70.
37. Wu Y, Zhou Y, van Dijk E, Leliveld MC, Zhou X. Social comparison affects brain responses to fairness in asset division: An ERP study with the ultimatum game. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 2011;5.
38. Hu J, Cao Y, Blue PR, Zhou X. Low social status decreases the neural salience of unfairness. Front Behav Neurosci. 2014;8:402. Epub 2014/12/06. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00402 25477798.
39. Skitka LJ, Mullen E, Griffin T, Hutchinson S, Chamberlin B. Dispositions, scripts, or motivated correction? Understanding ideological differences in explanations for social problems. Journal of personality and social psychology. 2002;83(2):470. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.83.2.470 12150241
40. Van Berkel L, Crandall CS, Eidelman S, Blanchar JC. Hierarchy, dominance, and deliberation: Egalitarian values require mental effort. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2015;41(9):1207–22. doi: 10.1177/0146167215591961 26133375
41. Adler NE, Epel ES, Castellazzo G, Ickovics JR. Relationship of subjective and objective social status with psychological and physiological functioning: Preliminary data in healthy, White women. Health Psychology. 2000;19(6):586–92. doi: 10.1037//0278-6133.19.6.586 11129362
42. Cundiff JM, Smith TW, Uchino BN, Berg CA. Subjective social status: Construct validity and associations with psychosocial vulnerability and self-rated health. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 2013;20(1):148–58. doi: 10.1007/s12529-011-9206-1 22200973
43. Operario D, Adler NE, Williams DR. Subjective social status: Reliability and predictive utility for global health. Psychology & Health. 2004;19(2):237–46.
44. Schwartz SH. Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. In: Zanna MP, editor. Advances in experimental social psychology, Vol 25. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 1992. p. 1–65.
45. Graham J, Haidt J, Nosek BA. Liberals and conservatives rely on different sets of moral foundations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2009;96(5):1029–46. doi: 10.1037/a0015141 19379034
46. Ho AK, Sidanius J, Kteily N, Sheehy-Skeffington J, Pratto F, Henkel KE, et al. The nature of social dominance orientation: Theorizing and measuring preferences for intergroup inequality using the new SDO7 scale. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2015;109(6):1003–28. doi: 10.1037/pspi0000033 supp (Supplemental). 26479362
47. Rohan MJ. A rose by any name? The values construct. Personality and Social Psychology Review. 2000;4(3):255–77.
48. Lindeman M, Verkasalo M. Measuring Values With the Short Schwartz’s Value Survey. Journal of Personality Assessment. 2005;85(2):170–8. doi: 10.1207/s15327752jpa8502_09 16171417
49. Evans DE, Rothbart MK. Developing a model for adult temperament. Journal of Research in Personality. 2007;41(4):868–88.
50. Kanske P, Kotz SA. Effortful control, depression, and anxiety correlate with the influence of emotion on executive attentional control. Biological Psychology. 2012;91(1):88–95. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.04.007 22564476
51. Bridgett DJ, Oddi KB, Laake LM, Murdock KW, Bachmann MN. Integrating and differentiating aspects of self-regulation: Effortful control, executive functioning, and links to negative affectivity. Emotion. 2013;13(1):47–63. doi: 10.1037/a0029536 22906086
52. Posner MI, Rothbart MK, Vizueta N, Levy KN, Evans DE, Thomas KM, et al. Attentional mechanisms of borderline personality disorder. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002;99(25):16366–70. Epub 2002/11/29. doi: 10.1073/pnas.252644699 12456876.
53. Gomez R, Kyriakides C, Devlin E. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms in an adult sample: Associations with Rothbart’s temperament dimensions. Personality and Individual Differences. 2014;60:73–8.
54. Nijboer M, Borst J, van Rijn H, Taatgen N. Single-task fMRI overlap predicts concurrent multitasking interference. Neuroimage. 2014;100:60–74. Epub 2014/06/10. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.05.082 24911376.
55. Peirce JW. PsychoPy—Psychophysics software in Python. J Neurosci Methods. 2007;162(1–2):8–13. Epub 2007/01/27. doi: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2006.11.017 17254636.
56. Peirce JW. Generating Stimuli for Neuroscience Using PsychoPy. Front Neuroinform. 2008;2:10. Epub 2009/02/10. doi: 10.3389/neuro.11.010.2008 19198666.
57. Solnick SJ. Gender Differences in the Ultimatum Game. Economic Inquiry. 2001;39(2):189–200. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/%28ISSN%291465-7295/issues.
58. Xiang T, Lohrenz T, Montague PR. Computational substrates of norms and their violations during social exchange. J Neurosci. 2013;33(3):1099–108a. Epub 2013/01/18. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1642-12.2013 23325247.
59. Hurvich CM, Tsai C-L. Regression and time series model selection in small samples. Biometrika. 1989;76(2):297–307.
60. Kastner S, Ungerleider LG. The neural basis of biased competition in human visual cortex. Neuropsychologia. 2001;39(12):1263–76. Epub 2001/09/22. doi: 10.1016/s0028-3932(01)00116-6 11566310.
61. Buschman TJ, Miller EK. Top-down versus bottom-up control of attention in the prefrontal and posterior parietal cortices. Science. 2007;315(5820):1860–2. Epub 2007/03/31. doi: 10.1126/science.1138071 17395832.
62. Lennert T, Martinez-Trujillo J. Strength of response suppression to distracter stimuli determines attentional-filtering performance in primate prefrontal neurons. Neuron. 2011;70(1):141–52. Epub 2011/04/13. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2011.02.041 21482363.
63. Gherri E, Eimer M. Active listening impairs visual perception and selectivity: an ERP study of auditory dual-task costs on visual attention. J Cogn Neurosci. 2011;23(4):832–44. Epub 2010/05/15. doi: 10.1162/jocn.2010.21468 20465407.
64. Hoffman E, McCabe K, Shachat K, Smith V. Preferences, property rights, and anonymity in bargaining games. Games and Economic behavior. 1994;7(3):346–80.
65. Blue PR, Hu J, Wang X, van Dijk E, Zhou X. When do low status individuals accept less? The interaction between self-and other-status during resource distribution. Frontiers in psychology. 2016;7:1667. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01667 27826282
66. Slonim R, Roth AE. Learning in High Stakes Ultimatum Games: An Experiment in the Slovak Republic. Econometrica. 1998;66(3):569–96.
67. Cameron LA. Raising the stakes in the ultimatum game: Experimental evidence from Indonesia. Economic Inquiry. 1999;37(1):47–59.
68. Oosterbeek H, Sloof R, Van De Kuilen G. Cultural differences in ultimatum game experiments: Evidence from a meta-analysis. Experimental economics. 2004;7(2):171–88.
69. Novakova J, Flegr J. How much is our fairness worth? The effect of raising stakes on offers by proposers and minimum acceptable offers in dictator and ultimatum games. PloS one. 2013;8(4):e60966. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0060966 23580080
70. Engelmann D, Strobel M. Inequality Aversion, Efficiency, and Maximin Preferences in Simple Distribution Experiments. American Economic Review. 2004;94(4):857–69. http://www.aeaweb.org/aer/.
Článek vyšel v časopise
PLOS One
2020 Číslo 1
- S diagnostikou Parkinsonovy nemoci může nově pomoci AI nástroj pro hodnocení mrkacího reflexu
- Proč při poslechu některé muziky prostě musíme tančit?
- Je libo čepici místo mozkového implantátu?
- Chůze do schodů pomáhá prodloužit život a vyhnout se srdečním chorobám
- Pomůže v budoucnu s triáží na pohotovostech umělá inteligence?
Nejčtenější v tomto čísle
- Severity of misophonia symptoms is associated with worse cognitive control when exposed to misophonia trigger sounds
- Chemical analysis of snus products from the United States and northern Europe
- Calcium dobesilate reduces VEGF signaling by interfering with heparan sulfate binding site and protects from vascular complications in diabetic mice
- Effect of Lactobacillus acidophilus D2/CSL (CECT 4529) supplementation in drinking water on chicken crop and caeca microbiome
Zvyšte si kvalifikaci online z pohodlí domova
Všechny kurzy