#PAGE_PARAMS# #ADS_HEAD_SCRIPTS# #MICRODATA#

A review of the effects of prolactin hormone and cytokine on the development and pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases


Authors: M. Fojtíková 1;  M. Černá 2;  K. Pavelka 1
Authors‘ workplace: Revmatologický ústav Praha, ředitel prof. MU Dr. Karel Pavelka, DrSc. 1;  Ústav obecné biologie a genetiky 3. lékařské fakulty UK Praha, přednostka doc. MU Dr. Marie Černá, CSc. 2
Published in: Vnitř Lék 2010; 56(5): 402-413
Category: Reviews

Overview

Prolactin (PRL) is not only a pituitary hormone with important role in the reproduction but it also acts as a cytokine involved in the immune response. Prolactin is produced by many immune system cells that express the prolactin receptor (PRL‑R). PRL is then able to affect local microenvironment of the immune system organs and contribute to maturation as well as functioning of the immune system cells. The role of PRL in the immune reactions is stimulating; its presence significantly increases the ability of the immune cells to proliferate and produce cytokines such as TNF‑α, IFN‑γ, IL‑12, IL‑1β. This effect results from activation of a number of intracellular pathways (Jak2/ STAT, Ras/Raf/MAPK etc.) and activation of the genes linked to apoptosis and proliferation (Bcl‑XL, Bcl‑2, pim, XIAP) or transcription factors (IRF‑1). Interestingly, PRL itself is unable to initiate an immune reaction; it is more a factor maintaining balance within immune reactions, contra‑ regulatory to glucocorticoids, which effect is manifested under critical circumstances of physical or psychological stress. Intensified immunosuppression during stress, combined with a lack of prolactin, has surprisingly been identified during experiments on mice and is also found in human medicine. On the other hand, increased prolactin serum levels were described in several systemic as well as organ‑ specific autoimmune diseases. PRL levels elevation in these diseases might result from several factors: an increased release of prolactin from the anterior pituitary due to inflammatory cytokines or reduced production of suppressive dopamine, or, alternatively, an increased production of prolactin in immune system cells. In some of these diseases, such as celiac disease and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), the PRL level correlates with the disease activity. This supports the hypothesis that PRL oversupply shifts the balance in the immune response towards higher activity of the immune system cells and initiation of the immune reaction. For example, in SLE, prolactin prolongs the life cycle of autoreactive B‑lymphocytes and their ability to produce pathogenic autoantibodies. Further research into the effects of PRL and monitoring of patients with hyperprolactinaemia and autoimmune diseases will provide guidance on how to best utilize the possibly so far hidden prolactin potential. It is questionable whether pharmacotherapy could be used to decrease serum PRL levels in the treatment of autoimmune diseases. However, the currently running studies suggest it might be possible to use PRL level detection as a marker of a disease activity.

Key words:
prolactin –  autoimmune diseases – cells of the immune system –  intracellular pathway –  apoptosis –  cytokine –  stress –  disease activity


Sources

1. Riddle O, Bates RW, Dykshorn SW. The preparation, identification and assay of prolactin –  a hormone of the anterior pituitary. Am J Physiol 1933; 105: 191– 216.

2. Freeman ME, Kanyicska B, Lerant A et al. Prolactin: structure, function, and regulation of secretion. Physiol Rev 2000; 80: 1523– 1631.

3. Bole‑ Feysot C, Goffin V, Edery M et al. Prolactin (PRL) and its receptor: actions, signal transduction pathways and phenotypes observed in PRL receptor knockout mice. Endocr Rev 1998; 19: 225– 268.

4. Goffin V, Shiverick KT, Kelly PA et al. Sequence‑ Function Relationships Within the Expanding Family of Prolactin, Growth Hormone, Placenta Lactogen, and Related Proteins in Mammals. Endocr Rev 1996; 17: 385– 410.

5. Gellersen B, Kempf R, Telgmann R et al. Nonpituitary human prolactin gene transcription is independent of Pit‑ 1 and differentially controlled in lymphocytes and in endometrial stroma. Mol Endocrinol 1994; 8: 356– 373.

6. Piwnica D, Fernandez I, Binart N et al. A new mechanism for prolactin processing into 16K PRL by secreted cathepsin D. Mol Endocrinol 2006; 20: 3263– 3278.

7. Ueda E, Ozerdem U, Chen YH et al. A molecular mimic demonstrates that phosphorylated human prolactin is a potent anti‑angiogenic hormone. Endocr Relat Cancer 2006; 13: 95– 111.

8. Leaños‑ Miranda A, Cárdenas‑ Mondragón G, Ulloa‑ Aguirre A et al. Anti‑prolactin autoantibodies in pregnant women with systemic lupus erythematosus: maternal and fetal outcome. Lupus 2007; 16: 342– 349.

9. Reem GH, Ray DW, Davis JR. The human prolactin gene upstream promoter is regulated in lymphoid cells by activators of T‑ cells and by cAMP. J Mol Endocrinol 1999; 22: 285– 292.

10. Gerlo S, Verdood P, Gellersen B et al. Mechanism of prostaglandin (PG)E2‑induced prolactin expression in human T cells: cooperation of two PGE2 receptor subtypes, E‑ prostanoid (EP)3 and EP 4, via calcium –  and cyclic adenosine 5’‑ monophosphate‑ mediated signaling pathways. J Immunol 2004; 173: 5952– 5962.

11. Gerlo S, Verdood P, Hooghe‑ Peters EL et al. Modulation of prolactin expression in human T lymphocytes by cytokines. J Neuroimmunol 2005; 162: 190– 193.

12. Villalobos C, Faught WJ, Frawley LS. Dynamic changes in spontaneous intracellular free calcium oscillations and their relationship to prolactin gene expression in single, primary mammotropes. Mol Endocrinol 1998; 12: 87– 95.

13. Ben‑ Jonathan N, Hnasko R. Dopamine as a prolactin (PRL) inhibitor. Endocr Rev 2001; 22: 724– 763.

14. Matera L, Galetto A, Mori M. Effect of prolactin on the antigen presenting function of monocyte‑ derived dendritic cells. Lupus 2001; 10: 728– 734.

15. Goffin V, Bernichtein S, Touraine P et al. Development and potential clinical uses of human prolactin receptor antagonists. Endocr Rev 2005; 26: 400– 422.

16. Harvey PW, Everest DJ, Springall CJ. Adverse effects of prolactin in rodents and humans: breast and prostate cancer. J Psychopharmacol 2008; 22 (Suppl 2): 20– 27.

17. Kokay IC, Bull PM, Davis RL et al. Expression of the long form of the prolactin receptor in magnocellular oxytocin neurons is associated with specific prolactin regulation of oxytocin neurons. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2006; 290: R1216– R1225.

18. Clevenger CV, Furth PA, Hankinson SE et al. The role of prolactin in mammary carcinoma. Endocr Rev 2003; 24: 1– 27.

19. Clevenger CV, Kline JB. Prolactin receptor signal transduction. Lupus 2001; 10: 706– 718.

20. Neilson LM, Zhu J, Xie J et al. Coactivation of Jak1 positively modulates prolactin‑Jak2 signaling in breast cancer: recruitment of ERK and Stat3 and enhancement of Akt and Stat5a/ b pathways. Mol Endocrinol 2007; 21: 2218– 2232.

21. Hügl SR, Merger M. Prolactin stimulates proliferation of the glucose‑dependent beta‑cell line INS‑ 1 via different IRS‑ proteins. J Pancreas (Online) 2007; 8: 739– 752.

22. Tripathi A, Sodhi A. Production of nitric oxide by murine peritoneal macrophages in vitro on treatment with prolactin and growth hormone: involvement of protein tyrosine kinases, Ca++, and MAP kinase signal transduction pathways. Mol Immunol 2007; 44: 3185– 3194.

23. Swaminathan G, Varghese B, Thangavel C et al. Prolactin stimulates ubiquitination, initial internalization, and degradation of its receptor via catalytic activation of Janus kinase 2. J Endocrinol 2008; 196: R1– R7.

24. Rycyzyn MA, Clevenger CV. The intranuclear prolactin/ cyclophilin B complex as a transcriptional inducer. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002; 99: 6790– 6795.

25. Dogusan Z, Hooghe R, Verdood P et al. Cytokine‑like effects of prolactin in human mononuclear and polymorphonuclear leukocytes. J Neuroimmunol 2001; 120: 58– 66.

26. Tripathi A, Sodhi A. Prolactin‑induced production of cytokines in macrophages in vitro involves JAK/ STAT and JNK MAPK pathways. Int Immunol 2008; 20: 327– 336.

27. Bishop JD, Nien WL, Dauphinee SM et al. Prolactin activates mammalian target‑ of‑ rapamycin through phosphatidylinositol 3- kinase and stimulates phosphorylation of p70S6K and 4E‑binding protein‑1 in lymphoma cells. J Endocrinol 2006; 190: 307– 312.

28. Grimley PM, Dong F, Rui H. Stat5a and Stat5b: fraternal twins of signal transduction and transcriptional activation. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 1999; 10: 131– 157.

29. Dogusan Z, Book ML, Verdood P et al. Prolactin activates interferon regulatory factor‑ 1 expression in normal lympho‑ hemopoietic cells. Eur Cytokine Netw 2000; 11: 435– 442.

30. Martens N, Uzan G, Wery M et al. Suppressor of cytokine signaling 7 inhibits prolactin, growth hormone, and leptin signaling by interacting with STAT5 or STAT3 and attenuating their nuclear translocation. J Biol Chem 2005; 280: 13817– 13823.

31. Domínguez‑ Cáceres MA, García‑ Martínez JM, Calcabrini A et al. Prolactin induces c‑ Myc expression and cell survival through activation of Src/ Akt pathway in lymphoid cells. Oncogene 2004; 23: 7378– 7390.

32. Peeva E, Michael D, Cleary J et al. Prolactin modulates the naive B cell repertoire. J Clin Invest 2003; 111: 275– 283.

33. Larrea F, Martínez‑ Castillo A, Cabrera V et al. A bioactive 60- kilodalton prolactin species is preferentially secreted in cultures of mitogen‑ stimulated and nonstimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells from subjects with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997; 82: 3664– 3669.

34. Krishnan N, Thellin O, Buckley DJ et al. Prolactin suppresses glucocorticoid‑induced thymocyte apoptosis in vivo. Endocrinology 2003; 144: 2102– 2110.

35. Gingras MC, Margolin JF. Differential expression of multiple unexpected genes during U937cell and macrophage differentiation detected by suppressive subtractive hybridization. Exp Hematol 2000; 28: 65– 76.

36. Wu H, Devi R, Malarkey WB. Expression and localization of prolactin messenger ribonucleic acid in the human immune system. Endocrinology 1996; 137: 349– 353.

37. Gagnerault MC, Touraine P, Savino W et al. Expression of prolactin receptors in murine lymphoid cells in normal and autoimmune situations. J Immunol 1993; 150: 5673– 5681.

38. Carreño PC, Sacedón R, Jiménez E et al. Prolactin affects both survival and differentiation of T‑ cell progenitors. J Neuroimmunol 2005; 160: 135– 145.

39. Matera L, Mori M, Geuna M et al. Prolactin in autoimmunity and antitumor defence. J Neuroimmunol 2000; 109: 47– 55.

40. Chavez‑ Rueda K, Hérnández J, Zenteno E et al. Identification of prolactin as a novel immunomodulator on the expression of co‑ stimulatory molecules and cytokine secretions on T and B human lymphocytes. Clin Immunol 2005; 116: 182– 191.

41. Matalka KZ. Prolactin enhances production of interferon‑ γ, interleukin‑12, and interleukin‑10, but not of tumor necrosis factor‑ a in a stimulus‑ specific manner. Cytokine 2003; 21: 187– 194.

42. Majumder B, Biswas R, Chattopadhyay U. Prolactin regulates antitumor immune response through induction of tumoricidal macrophages and release of IL‑12. Int J Cancer 2002; 97: 493– 500.

43. Dimitrov S, Lange T, Fehm HL et al. A regulatory role of prolactin, growth hormone, and corticosteroids for human T‑ cell production of cytokines. Brain Behav Immun 2004; 18: 368– 374.

44. Takizawa K, Kitani S, Takeuchi F et al. Enhanced expression of CD69 and CD25 antigen on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells by prolactin. Endocr J 2005; 52: 635– 641.

45. Lahat N, Miller A, Shtiller R et al. Differential effects of prolactin upon activation and differentiation of human B lymphocytes. J Neuroimmunol 1993; 47: 35– 40.

46. Mukherjee A, Helbert M, Ryder WDJ et al. Failure of antibody response to polysaccharide antigen in treated panhypopituitary adults. Clin Exp Immunol 2009; 156: 271– 277.

47. Nagy E, Berczi I. Pituitary dependence of bone marrow function. Br J Haematol 1989; 71: 457– 462.

48. Dorshkind K, Horseman ND. The roles of prolactin, growth hormone, insulin‑like growth factor‑ I, and thyroid hormones in lymphocyte development and function: insights from genetic models of hormone and hormone receptor deficiency. Endocr Rev 2000; 21: 292– 312.

49. Moriggl R, Topham DJ, Teglund S et al. Stat5 is required for IL‑2‑induced cell cycle progression of peripheral T cells. Immunity 1999; 10: 249– 259.

50. Zellweger R, Wichmann MW, Ayala A et al. Prolactin: a novel and safe immunomodulating hormone for the treatment of immunodepression following severe hemorrhage. J Surg Res 1996; 63: 53– 58.

51. Fomicheva EE, Nemirovich‑ Danchenko EA, Korneva EA. Immunoprotective effects of prolactin during stress‑induced immune dysfunction. Bull Exp Biol Med 2004; 137: 544– 547.

52. Dimitrov S, Benedict C, Heutling D et al. Cortisol and epinephrine control opposing circadian rhythms in T cell subsets. Blood 2009; 113: 5134– 5143.

53. Buttgereit F, Saag KG, Cutolo M et al. The molecular basis for the effectiveness, toxicity, and resistance to glucocorticoids: focus on the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Scand J Rheumatol 2005; 34: 14– 21.

54. Reiche AM, Nunes SO, Morimoto HK. Stress, depression, the immune system, and cancer. Lancet Oncol 2004; 5: 617– 625.

55. Dostál C, Marek J, Moszkorzová L et al. Effects of stress on serum prolactin levels in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann NY Acad Sci 2002; 966: 247– 251.

56. Gauna C, van den Berghe GH, van der Lely AJ. Pituitary function during severe and life‑ threatening illnesses. Pituitary 2005; 8: 213– 217.

57. Felmet KA, Hall MW, Clark RS et al. Prolonged lymphopenia, lymphoid depletion, and hypoprolactinemia in children with nosocomial sepsis and multiple organ failure. J Immunol 2005; 174: 3765– 3772.

58. Matalka KZ, Ali DA. Stress‑induced versus preovulatory and pregnancy hormonal levels in modulating cytokine production following whole blood stimulation. Neuroimmunomodulation 2005; 12: 366– 374.

59. Matsutani T, Samy TS, Rue LW 3rd et al. Transgenic prolactin – / –  mice: effect of trauma‑ hemorrhage on splenocyte functions. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2005; 288: C1109– C1116.

60. Mancini T, Casanueva FF, Giustina A. Hyperprolactinemia and prolactinomas. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2008; 37: 67– 99.

61. Batrinos ML, Panitsa‑ Faflia C, Tsiganou E et al. Incidence and characteristics of microprolactinomas (3– 5mm) in 4199 women assayed for prolactin. Horm Metab Res 1992; 24: 384– 91.

62. Elenkov IJ, Wilder RL, Bakalov VK et al. IL‑12, TNF‑α, and hormonal changes during late pregnancy and early postpartum: implications for autoimmune disease activity during these times. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86: 4933– 4938.

63. Buskila D, Berezin M, Gur H et al. Autoantibody profile in the sera of women with hyperprolactinemia. J Autoimmun 1995; 8: 415– 424.

64. Li M, Keiser HD, Peeva E. Prolactinoma and systemic lupus erythematosus: do serum prolactin level matter? Clin Rheumatol 2006; 11: 1– 4.

65. Sánches Regaña M, Umbert Millet P. Psoriasis in association with prolactinoma: three cases. Br J Dermatol 2000; 143: 864– 867.

66. Erb N, Pace AV, Delamere JP et al. Control of unremitting rheumatoid arthritis by the prolactin antagonist cabergoline. Rheumatology 2001; 40: 237– 239.

67. Kira J, Harada M, Yamaguchi Y et al. Hyperprolactinemia in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Sci 1991; 102: 61– 66.

68. Yamasaki K, Horiuchi I, Minohara M et al. Hyperprolactinemia in optico‑ spinal multiple sclerosis. Intern Med 2000; 39: 296– 299.

69. Harirchian MH, Sahraian MA, Shirani A. Serum prolactin level in patients with multiple sclerosis: a case control study. Med Sci Monit 2006; 12: CR177– CR180.

70. Then Bergh F, Kümpfel T, Schumann Eet al. Monthly intravenous methylprednisolone in relapsing‑ remitting multiple sclerosis –  reduction of enhancing lesions, T2 lesion volume and plasma prolactin concentrations. BMC Neurol 2006; 6: 19.

71. Poyraz BC, Aksoy C, Balcioğlu I. Increased incidence of autoimmune thyroiditis in patients with antipsychotic‑induced hyperprolactinemia. Eur Neropsychopharmacol 2008; 18: 667– 672.

72. Legakis I, Petroyianni V, Saramantis A et al. Elevated prolactin to cortisol ratio and polyclonal autoimmune activation in Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. Horm Metab Res 2001; 33: 585– 589.

73. Kapur G, Patwari AK, Narayan S et al. Serum prolactin in celiac disease. J Trop Pediatr 2004; 50: 37– 40.

74. Pynnönen PA, Isometsä ET, Verkasalo MA et al. Gluten‑free diet may alleviate depressive and behavioural symptoms in adolescents with celiac disease: a prospective follow‑up case‑ series study. BMC Psychiatry 2005; 5: 14.

75. Kanda N, Shibata S, Tada Y et al. Prolactin enhances basal and IL‑17 induced CCL20 production by human keratinocytes. Eur J Immunol 2009; 39: 996– 1006.

76. Kanda N, Watanabe S. Prolactin enhances interferon‑  g‑induced production of CXC ligand 9 (CXCL9), CXCL10, and CXCL11 in human keratinocytes. Endocrinology 2007; 148: 2317– 2325.

77. Hawkins TA, Gala RR, Dunbar JC. Prolactin modulates the incidence of diabetes in male and female NOD mice. Autoimmunity 1994; 18: 155–162.

78. Holstad M, Sandler S. Prolactin protects against diabetes induced by multiple low doses of streptozocin in mice. J Endocrinol 1999; 163: 229–234.

79. Lau J, Börjesson A, Holstad M et al. Prolactin regulation of the expression of TNF‑α, IFN‑γ and IL‑10 by splenocytes in murine multiple low dose streptozotocin diabetes. Immunol Lett 2006; 102: 25–30.

80. Labriola L, Montor WR, Krogh K et al. Beneficial effects of prolactin and laminin on primary cultures on human pancreatic islets‑ cell cultures. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2007; 263: 120–133.

81. Lavalle C, Loyo E, Paniagua R et al. Correlation study between prolactin and androgens in male patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 1987; 14: 268–272.

82. McMurray RW. Prolactin in murine systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2001; 10: 742–747.

83. Cohen‑Solal JF, Jeganathan V, Hill L et al. Hormonal regulation of B‑cell function and systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2008; 17: 528–532.

84. Saha S, Gonzalez J, Rosenfeld G et al. Prolactin alters the mechanism of B cell tolerance induction. Arthritis Rheum 2009; 60: 1743–1752.

85. Peeva E, Grimaldi C, Spatz L et al. Bromocriptine restores tolerance in estrogen‑treated mice. J Clin Invest 2000; 106: 1373–1379.

86. Peeva E, Gonzales J, Hicks R et al. Cutting edge: lupus susceptibility interval Sle3/ 5 confers responsiveness to prolactin in C57BL/6 mice. J Immunol 2006; 177: 1401–1405.

87. Jacobi AM, Rohde W, Volk HD et al. Prolactin enhances the in vitro production of IgG in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus but not from healthy controls. Ann Rheum Dis 2001; 60: 242– 247.

88. Chavez‑ Rueda K, Legorreta‑Haquet VM, Cervera‑ Castillo H et al. Effect of prolactin on lymphocyte activation from systemic lupus erythematosus patients. Ann NY Acad Sci 2007; 1108: 157–165.

89. McMurray RW, May W. Sex hormones and systemic lupus erythematosus: Review and meta‑analysis. Arthritis Rheum 2003; 48: 2100– 2110.

90. Leaños‑ Miranda A, Cárdenas‑ Mondragón G. Serum free prolactin concentrations in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus are associated with lupus activity. Rheumatology 2006; 45: 97–101.

91. Cárdenas‑ Mondragón G, Ulloa‑ Aguirre A, Isordia‑Salas I et al. Elevated serum bioactive prolactin concentrations in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus are associated with disease activity as disclosed by homologous receptor bioassays. J Rheumatol 2007; 34: 1514–1521.

92. Vera‑ Lastra O, Mendez C, Jara LJ et al. Correlation of prolactin serum concentrations with clinical activity and remission in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Effect of conventional treatment. J Rheumatol 2003; 30: 2140– 2146.

93. Leaños‑ Miranda A, Chávez‑ Rueda KA, Blanco‑ Favela F. Biologic activity and plasma clearance of prolactin‑IgG complex in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 2001; 44: 866– 875.

94. Dai L, Wu Y, Zheng DH et al. Cerebrospinal fluid and serum prolactin in systemic lupus erythematosus with and without central nervous system involvement. APLAR J Rheumatol 2007; 10: 37– 42.

95. Jara LJ, Irigoyen L, Ortiz MJ et al. Prolactin and interleukin‑6 in neuropsychiatric lupus erythematosus. Clin Rheumatol 1998; 17: 110– 114.

96. Fojtíková M, Černá M, Čejková P et al. Extrapituitary prolactin promoter polymorphism in Czech patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2007; 66: 706– 707.

97. McMurray RW, Weidensaul D, Allen SH et al. Efficacy of bromocriptine in an open label therapeutic trial for systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 1995; 22: 2084– 2091.

98. Hrycek A, Cieslik P, Tustanowski J et al. Selected serum cytokines in systemic lupus erythematosus treated with quinagolide. Lupus 2001; 10: 424– 430.

99. Alvarez‑ Nemegyei J, Cobarrubias‑ Cobos A, Escalante‑ Triay F et al. Bromocriptine in systemic lupus erythematosus: a double‑blind, randomized, placebo‑ controlled study. Lupus 1998; 7: 414– 419.

100. Walker SE. Bromocriptine treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2001; 10: 762– 768.

101. Ruiz‑ Irastorza G, Khamashta MA. Lupus and pregnancy: ten questions and some answers. Lupus 2008; 17: 416– 420.

102. Jara LJ, Pacheco‑ Reyes H, Medina G et al. Prolactin levels are associated with lupus activity, lupus anticoagulant, and poor outcome in pregnancy. Ann NY Acad Sci 2007; 1108: 218– 226.

103. Jara LJ, Cruz‑ Cruz P, Saavedra MA et al. Bromocriptine during pregnancy in systemic lupus erythematosus: a pilot clinical trial. Ann NY Acad Sci 2007; 1110: 297– 304.

104. Neidhart M, Flückiger EW. Hyperprolactinaemia in hypophysectomized or intact male rats and the development of adjuvant arthritis. Immunology 1992; 77: 449– 455.

105. Jurčovičová J, Stančíková M, Švík K et al. Stress of chronic food restriction attenuates the development of adjuvant arthritis in male Long Evans rats. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2001; 19: 371– 376.

106. Ratkay LG, Weinberg J, Waterfield JD. The effect of lactation in the post‑partum arthritis of MRL‑ lpr/ fasmice. Rheumatology 2000; 39: 646– 651.

107. Rovensky J, Bakosova J, Payer J et al. Increased demand for steroid therapy in hyperprolactinemic patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Int J Tissue React 2001; 23: 145– 149.

108. Mateo L, Nolla JM, Bonnion MR et al. High serum prolactin levels in men with rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 1998; 25: 2077– 2082.

109. Chuang E, Molitch ME. Prolactin and autoimmune diseases in humans. Acta Biomed 2007; 78 (Suppl 1): 255– 261.

110. Macejová Z, Trejbal D, Oetterová M et al. Prolaktín ‑  marker aktivity systémových ochorení spojiva? Vnitř Lék 2008; 54: 1039– 1044.

111. Mirone L, Barini A. Androgen and prolactin (Prl) levels in systemic sclerosis (SSc): relationship to disease severity. Ann NY Acad Sci 2006; 1069: 257– 262.

112. Czuwara‑Ladykowska J, Sicinska J, Olszewska M et al. Prolactin synthesis by lymphocytes from patients with systemic sclerosis. Biomed Pharmacother 2006; 60: 152– 155.

113. Fojtíková M, Cejková P, Bečvář R et al. Polymorphism of the extrapituitary prolactin promoter and systemic sclerosis. Rheumatol Int 2009. Epub ahead of print.

Labels
Diabetology Endocrinology Internal medicine
Topics Journals
Login
Forgotten password

Enter the email address that you registered with. We will send you instructions on how to set a new password.

Login

Don‘t have an account?  Create new account

#ADS_BOTTOM_SCRIPTS#