Soft tissues, hormones and the skeleton
Authors:
I. Žofková
Authors‘ workplace:
Endokrinologický ústav Praha, ředitelka RNDr. Běla Bendlová, CSc.
Published in:
Vnitř Lék 2012; 58(2): 135-139
Category:
Reviews
Overview
Mechanical load activates bone modeling and increases bone strength. Thus physical activity is extremely important for overall bone health. Muscle volume and muscle contraction are closely related to bone mineral density in men and women, although these relationships are more significat in men. The muscle-bone unit has been defined as a functional system, in which both components are under control of the somatotropin-IGF-I system, androgens and D hormone. These endocrine systems play, via the muscle-bone unit, an important role in development of the skeleton and its stability in adulthood. That is why deficiency of any of these hormonal systems, or reduced physical activity (mainly in childhood) could seriously affect bone density and quality. Bone is also under control of adipose tissue, which modulates its metabolism via mechanical load and more importantly via adipocytokines (leptin, adiponectin and rezistin). Leptin increases bone formation by activation of osteoblasts. This direct effect of leptin is amplified by stimulation of the β-1 adrenergic system, which inhibits the negative osteotropic effects of neuropeptide Y. On the other hand, leptin also activates β-2 adrenergic receptors, which increase bone resorption. In humans, the overall osteo-anabolic effect of leptin tends to be dominant. Furthermore, leptin has a principal role in the start of puberty in girls and maturation, remodeling and development of the female skeleton. Adiponectin (and probably rezistin) has an unambiguous deteriorating effect on the skeleton. Further studies are needed to confirm the clinical importance of soft tissues relative to the integrity of the skeleton.
Key words:
muscle – bone – fat – leptin – adiponectin – vitamin D – androgens – IGF1
Sources
1. Ahima RS, Osei SY. Adipokines in obesity. Front Horm Res 2008; 36: 182–197.
2. Ashby RL, Adams JE, Roberts SA et al. The muscle-bone unit of peripheral and central skeletal sites in children and young adults. Osteoporos Int 2011; 22: 121–132.
3. Baldock PA, Alison S, Macdonald MM et al. Hypothalamic regulation of cortical bone mass: opposing activity of Y2 receptor and leptin pathways. J Bone Miner Res 2006; 21: 1600–1607.
4. Barbour KE, Zmuda JM, Boudreau R et al. Adipokines and the risk of fracture in older adults. J Bone Miner Res 2011; 26: 1568–1576.
5. Bartell SM, Isales CM, Baile CA et al. CART deficiency increases body weight but does not alter bone strength. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact 2008; 8: 146–153.
6. Beranova L, Sedláčkova D, Konečná J et al. Neuropeptide Y, ghrelin and leptin plasma levels in anorexia nervosa patients and their changes during six-week refeeding. Vnitř Lék 2009; 55: 925–928.
7. Bonnet N, Pierroz DD, Ferrari SL. Adrenergic control of bone remodeling and its implications for the treatment of osteoporosis. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact 2008; 8: 94–104.
8. Cannon JG, Cortez-Cooper M, Meaders E et al. Follicle-stimulating hormone, interleukin-1, and bone density in adult women. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2010; 293: R790–R798.
9. Elefteriou F. Regulation of bone remodeling by the central and peripheral nervous system. Arch Biochem Biophys 2008; 473: 231–236.
10. Fairbrother UL, Tankó LB, Halley AJ et al. Leptin receptor genotype at Gln223Arg is associated with body composition, BMD, and vertebral fracture in postmenopausal Danish women. J Bone Miner Res 2007; 22: 544–550.
11. Fonseca-Alaniz MH, Takada J, Alfonso-Vale MI et al. Adipose tissue as an endocrine organ: from theory to practice. J Pediatr (Rio J) 2007; 83 (Suppl 5): S192–S203.
12. Fricke O, Beccard R, Semler O et al. Analyse of muscular mass and function: the impact on bone mineral density and peak muscle mass. Pediatr Nephrol 2010; 25: 2393–2400.
13. Fricke O, Schoenau E. The “muscle-bone unit”: probing the relevance of mechanical signale for bone development in children and adolescents. Growth Horm IGF Res 2007; 17: 1–9.
14. Golden NH, Carlson JL. The pathophysiology of amenorrhoea in the adolescent. Ann NY Acad Sci 2008; 1135: 163–178.
15. Grundberg E, Brändström H, Ribom EL et al. Genetic variation in the human vitamin D receptor is associated with muscle strength, fat mass and body weight in Swedish women. Eur J Endocrinology 2004; 150: 323–328.
16. Hamrick MW, Ferrari SL. Leptin and the sympathetic connection of fat to bone. Osteoporosis Int 2008; 19: 905–912.
17. Hasselstrøm H, Karlson KM, Hansen SE et al. Sex differences in bone size and bone mineral density before puberty. The Copenhagen Schoul Child Intervention Study (CoSCIS). Calcif Tissue Int 2006; 79: 7–14.
18. Iacobellis G, Iorio M, Napoli N et al. Relation of adiponectin, visfatin and bone mineral density in patients with metabolic syndrome. J Endocrinol Invest 2011; 34: e12–5 (Epub 2010).
19. Jürimäe J, Jürimäe T, Leppik A et al. The influence of ghrelin, adiponectin, and leptin on bone mineral density in healthy postmenopausal women. J Bone Miner Metab 2008; 26: 618–623.
20. Kaplowitz PB. Link between body fat and timing of puberty. Pediatrics 2008; 121: S208–S217.
21. Koerner A, Kratzsch J, Kiess W. Adipocytokines: leptin – the classical, resistin – the controversial, adiponectin – the promissing, and more to come. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 19: 525–546.
22. Krsek M, Rosická M, Haluzik M et al. The changes in serum ghrelin levels and their relationship to IGF-I, its binding proteins and leptin in women patiens with anorexia nervosa. Vnitř Lék 2002; 48: 948–951.
23. Lac G, Cavalie H, Ebal E et al. Effects of a high fat diets on bone of growing rats. Correlations between visceral fat, adiponectin and bone mass density. Lipids Health Dis 2008; 7: 16.
24. Lerner UH, Persson E. Osteotropic effects by the neuropeptides calcitonin gene-related peptide, substance P and vasoactive intestinal peptide. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact 2008; 8: 154–165.
25. Liu LF, Shen WJ, Zhang ZH et al. Adipocytes decrease Runx2 in osteoblastic cells: roles of PPARγ and adiponectin. J Cell Physiol 2010; 225: 837–845.
26. MacDonald H, Kontulainen S, Petit M et al. Bone strength and its determinants in pre- and early pubertal boys and girls. Bone 2006; 39: 598–608.
27. Morelli A, Marini M, Mancina R et al. Sex steroids and leptin regulates the “first Kiss” (KiSS 1/G-protein-coupled receptor 54 system) in human gonadotropin-releasing-hormone-secreting neuroblasts. J Sex Med 2008; 5: 1097–1113.
28. Mukherjee A, Murray RD, Shaket SM. Impact of growth hormone status on body composition and the skeleton. Horm Res 2004; 62 (Suppl 3): 35–41.
29. Parfitt AM. The attainment of peak bone mass: What is the relationship between muscle growth and bone growth? Bone 2004; 34: 767–770.
30. Peng XD, Xie H, Zhao Q et al. Relationships between serum adiponectin, leptin, resistin, visfatin levels and bone mineral density, and bone biochemical markers in Chinese men. Clin Chim Acta 2008; 387: 31–35.
31. Pludowski P, Lebiedowski M, Olszaniecka M et al. Idiopathic juvenile osteoporosis – an analysis of the muscle-bone relationship. Osteoporosis Int 2006; 17: 1681–1690.
32. Rauch F, Bailey DA, Barter-Jones A et al. The “muscle-bone unit” during the pubertal growth spurt. Bone 2004; 34: 771–775.
33. Richter L, Chevalley T, Manen D et al. Bone mass in prepubertal boys is associated with a Gln223Arg amino acid substitution in the leptin receptor. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92: 4380–4386.
34. Sayers A, Timpson NJ, Sattar N et al. Adiponectin and its association with bone mass accrual in childhood. J Bone Miner Res 2010; 25: 2212–2220.
35. Suzuki N, Somei M, Kitamura K et al. Novel bromomelatonin derivatives suppress osteoclastic activity and increase osteoblastic activity: Implications for the treatment of bone disease. J Pineal Res 2008; 44: 326–334.
36. Thomas T. The complex effects of leptin on bone metabolism through multiple pathways. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2004; 4: 295–300.
37. Tsuji K, Maeda T, Kawane T et al. Leptin stimulates fibroblast growth factor 23 expression in bone and suppresses renal 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in leptin-deficient mice. J Bone Miner Res 2010; 25: 1711–1723.
38. Venken K, Movérare-Skrtic S, Kapchick JL et al. Impact of androgens, growth hormone, and IGF-I on bone and muscle in male mice during puberty. J Bone Miner Res 2007; 22: 72–82.
39. Žofková I. Hormonal aspects of the muscle-bone unit. Physiol Res 2008; 57 (Suppl 1): S159–S169.
40. Žofková I, Hill M. Biochemical markers of bone remodeling correlate negatively with circulating TSH in postmenopausal women. Edocr Regul 2008; 42: 121–128.
41. Zoico E, Zamboni M, Di Francesco V et al. Relation between adiponectin and bone mineral density in elderly postmenopausal women: role of body composition, leptin, insulin resistance, and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate. J Endocrinol Invest 2008; 31: 297–302.
Labels
Diabetology Endocrinology Internal medicineArticle was published in
Internal Medicine
![Issue 2](https://www.prolekare.cz/media/cache/resolve/journal_issue/media/image_pdf/468688e161518058eb6865f914255e88.jpeg)
2012 Issue 2
Most read in this issue
- Clinical implications of enlargement of left atrium
- Medicines and thyroid gland
- Radioiodine 131I therapy of hyperthyroidism on an outpatient basis – safe, effective and economic option
- Good’s syndrome (thymoma associated hypogammalobulinaemia) – 2 case reports