Radical surgery and radiotherapy – purpose and results of these treatment options in patients with higher stage prostate cancer

1. Epidemiologie zhoubných nádorů v České republice. [online]. Dostupné z: www.svod.cz.

2. Bill‑ Axelson A, Holmberg L, Ruutu M et al. Radical prostatectomy versus watchful waiting in early prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 2011; 364(18): 1708– 1717. doi: 10.1056/ NEJMoa1011967.

3. Wilt TJ, Brawer MK, Jones KM et al. Radical pros­tatectomy versus observation for localized prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 2012; 367(3): 203– 213. doi: 10.1056/ NEJMoa1113162.

4. Capitanio U, Scattoni V, Freschi M et al. Radical prostatectomy for incidental (stage T1a‑ T1b) pros­tate cancer: analysis of predictors for residual dis­ease and bio­chemical recurrence. Eur Urol 2008; 54(1): 118– 125. doi: 10.1016/ j.eururo.2008.02.018.

5. Lowe BA, Listrom MB. Incidental carcinoma of the prostate: an analysis of the predictors of progression. J Urol 1988; 140(6): 1340– 1344.

6. Elgamal AA, Van Poppel HP, Van de Voorde WM et al.Impalpable invisible stage T1c prostate cancer: characteristics and clinical relevance in 100 radical pros­tatectomy specimens –  a different view. J Urol 1997; 157(1): 244– 250.

7. Oesterling JE, Suman VJ, Zincke H et al. PSA‑ detected (clinical stage T1c or B0) prostate cancer. Pathologically significant tumors. Urol Clin North Am 1993; 20(4): 687– 693.

8. Epstein JI, Walsh PC, Brendler CB. Radical prostatectomy for impalpable prostate cancer: the Johns Hopkins experience with tumors found on transurethral resection (stages T1A and T1B) and on needle bio­psy (stage T1C). J Urol 1994; 152(5 Pt 2): 1721– 1729.

9. Singh H, Canto EI, Shariat SF et al. Improved detection of clinically significant, curable prostate cancer with systematic 12– core bio­psy. J Urol 2004; 171(3): 1089– 1092.

10. Epstein JI, Chan DW, Sokoll LJ et al. Nonpalpable stage T1c prostate cancer: prediction of insignificant disease using free/ total prostate specific antigen levels and needle bio­psy findings. J Urol 1998; 160(6 Pt 2): 2407– 2411.

11. Makarov DV, Trock BJ, Humphreys EB et al. Updated nomogram to predict pathologic stage of prostate cancer given prostate‑ specific antigen level, clinical stage, and bio­psy Gleason score (Partin tables) based on cases from 2000 to 2005. Urology 2007; 69(6): 1095– 1101.

12. D’Amico AV, Whittington R, Malkowicz SB et al. Combination of the preoperative PSA level, bio­psy gleason score, percentage of positive bio­psies and MRI T‑stage to predict early PSA failure in men with clinically localized prostate cancer. Urology 2000; 55(4): 572– 577.

13. Epstein JI. Gleason score 2– 4 adenocarcinoma of the prostate on needle bio­psy: a dia­gnosis that should not be made. Am J Surg Pathol 2000; 24(4): 477– 478.

14. Epstein JI, Steinberg GD. The significance of low‑ grade prostate cancer on needle bio­psy. A radical prostatectomy study of tumor grade, volume, and stage of the bio­psied and multifocal tumor. Cancer 1990; 66(9): 1927– 1932.

15. Briganti A, Larcher A, Abdollah F et al. Updated nomogram predicting lymph node invasion in patients with prostate cancer undergoing extended pelvic lymph node dissection: the essential importance of percentage of positive cores. Eur Urol 2012; 61(3): 480– 487. doi: 10.1016/ j.eururo.2011.10.044.

16. Graversen PH, Nielsen KT, Gasser TC et al. Radical prostatectomy versus expectant primary treatment in stages I and II prostatic cancer. A fifteen‑year follow‑up. Urology 1990; 36(6): 493– 498.

17. Isbarn H, Wanner M, Salomon G et al. Long‑term data on the survival of patients with prostate cancer treated with radical prostatectomy in the prostate‑ specific antigen era. BJU Int 2010; 106(1): 37– 43. doi: 10.1111/ j.1464‑ 410X.2009.09134.x.

18. Roehl KA, Han M, Ramos CG et al. Cancer progression and survival rates following anatomical radical retropubic prostatectomy in 3,478 consecutive patients: long‑term results. J Urol 2004; 172(3): 910– 914.

19. Han M, Partin AW, Pound CR et al. Long‑term bio­chemical disease‑free and cancer‑ specific survival following anatomic radical retropubic prostatectomy. The 15‑year Johns Hopkins experience. Urol Clin North Am 2001; 28(3): 555– 565.

20. Hull GW, Rabbani F, Abbas F et al. Cancer control with radical prostatectomy alone in 1,000 consecutive patients. J Urol 2002; 167(2 Pt 1): 528– 534.

21. Porter CR, Kodama K, Gibbons RP et al. 25‑year prostate cancer control and survival outcomes: a 40‑year radical prostatectomy single institution series. J Urol 2006; 176(2): 569– 574.

22. Shao YH, Demissie K, Shih W et al. Contemporary risk profile of prostate cancer in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst 2009; 101(18): 1280– 1283. doi: 10.1093/ jnci/ djp262.

23. Yossepowitch O, Eggener SE, Bianco FJ Jr et al. Radical prostatectomy for clinically localized, high risk prostate cancer: critical analysis of risk assessment methods. J Urol 2007; 178(2): 493– 499, discussion: 499.

24. Fallon B, Williams RD. Current options in the management of clinical stage C prostatic carcinoma. Urol Clin North Am 1990; 17(4): 853– 866.

25. Boccon‑ Gibod L, Bertaccini A, Bono AV et al. Management of locally advanced prostate cancer: a European consensus. Int J Clin Pract 2003; 57(3): 187– 194.

26. Bolla M, Collette L, Blank L et al. Long‑term results with immediate androgen suppression and external irradiation in patients with locally advanced prostate cancer (an EORTC study): a phase III randomised trial. Lancet 2002; 360(9327): 103– 106.

27. Gerber GS, Thisted RA, Chodak GW et al. Results of radical prostatectomy in men with locally advanced prostate cancer: multi‑institutional pooled analysis. Eur Urol 1997; 32(4): 385– 390.

28. Van Poppel H, Ameye F, Oyen R et al. Accuracy of combined computerized tomography and fine nee­dle aspiration cytology in lymph node staging of localized prostatic carcinoma. J Urol 1994; 151(5): 1310– 1314.

29. Van Poppel H, Vekemans K, Da Pozzo L et al. Radical prostatectomy for locally advanced prostate cancer: results of a feasibility study (EORTC 30001). Eur J Cancer 2006; 42(8): 1062– 1067.

30. Ward JF, Slezak JM, Blute ML et al. Radical pros­tatectomy for clinically advanced (cT3) prostate cancer since the advent of prostate‑ specific antigen test­ing: 15‑year outcome. BJU Int 2005; 95(6): 751– 756.

31. Carver BS, Bianco FJ Jr, Scardino PT et al. Long‑term outcome following radical prostatectomy in men with clinical stage T3 prostate cancer. J Urol 2006; 176(2): 564– 568.

32. Hsu CY, Joniau S, Oyen R et al. Outcome of surgery for clinical unilateral T3a prostate cancer: a single‑institution experience. Eur Urol 2007; 51(1): 121– 128, discussion: 128– 129.

33. Van Poppel H, Joniau S. An analysis of radical pros­tatectomy in advanced stage and high‑grade prostate cancer. Eur Urol 2008; 53(2): 253– 259.

34. Joniau S, Hsu CY, Lerut E et al. A pretreatment table for the prediction of final histopathology after radical prostatectomy in clinical unilateral T3a pros­tate cancer. Eur Urol 2007; 51(2): 388– 394, discus­sion: 395– 396.

35. Loeb S, Smith ND, Roehl KA et al. Intermediate‑ -term potency, continence, and survival outcomes of radical prostatectomy for clinically high‑risk or lo­cally advanced prostate cancer. Urology 2007; 69(6): 1170– 1175.

36. D’Amico AV, Whittington R, Malkowicz SB et al. Pretreatment nomogram for prostate‑ specific antigen recurrence after radical prostatectomy or external‑ beam radiation therapy for clinically localized prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 1999; 17(1): 168– 172.

37. Spahn M, Joniau S, Gontero P et al. Outcome predictors of radical prostatectomy in patients with prostate‑ specific antigen greater than 20 ng/ ml: a European multi‑institutional study of 712 patients. Eur Urol 2010; 58(1): 1– 7, discussion: 10– 11. doi: 10.1016/ j.eururo.2010.03.001.

38. Gontero P, Spahn M, Tombal B et al. Is there a pros­tate‑ specific antigen upper limit for radical prostatectomy? BJU Int 2011; 108(7): 1093– 1100. doi: 10.1111/ j.1464‑ 410X.2011.10076.x.

39. Johnstone PA, Ward KC, Goodman M et al. Radical prostatectomy for clinical T4 prostate cancer. Cancer 2006; 106(12): 2603– 2609.

40. Gontero P, Marchioro G, Pisani R et al. Is radical prostatectomy feasible in all cases of locally advanced non‑bone metastatic prostate cancer? Results of a single‑institution study. Eur Urol 2007; 51(4): 922– 929, discussion: 929– 930.

41. Ghavamian R, Bergstralh EJ, Blute ML et al. Radical retropubic prostatectomy plus orchiectomy versus orchiectomy alone for pTxN+ prostate cancer: a matched comparison. J Urol 1999; 161(4): 1223– 1227, discussion: 1277– 1278.

42. Messing EM, Manola J, Yao J et al. Immediate versus deferred androgen deprivation treatment in patients with node‑ positive prostate cancer after radical prostatectomy and pelvic lymphadenectomy. Lancet Oncol 2006; 7(6): 472– 479.

43. Engel J, Bastian PJ, Baur H et al. Survival benefit of radical prostatectomy in lymph node‑ positive patients with prostate cancer. Eur Urol 2010; 57(5): 754– 761. doi: 10.1016/ j.eururo.2009.12.034.

44. Bolla M, Van Tienhoven G, Warde P et al. External irradiation with or without long‑term androgen sup­pression for prostate cancer with high metastatic risk: 10‑year results of an EORTC randomised study. Lancet Oncol 2010; 11(11): 1066– 1073. doi: 10.1016/ S1470‑ 2045(10)70223‑ 0.

45. Pilepich MV, Winter K, Lawton CA et al. Androgen suppression adjuvant to definitive radiotherapy in prostate carcinoma –  long‑term results of phase IIIRTOG 85– 31. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2005; 61(5): 1285– 1290.

46. Roach M 3rd, Bae K, Speight J et al. Short‑term neoadjuvant androgen deprivation therapy and external‑ beam radiotherapy for locally advanced prostate cancer: long‑term results of RTOG 8610. J Clin Oncol 2008; 26(4): 585– 591. doi: 10.1200/ JCO.2007.13.9881.

47. Krauss D, Kestin L, Ye H et al. Lack of benefit for the addition of androgen deprivation therapy to dose‑escalated radiotherapy in the treatment of intermediate‑  and high‑risk prostate cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2011; 80(4): 1064– 1071. doi: 10.1016/ j.ijrobp.2010.04.004.

48. Kupelian PA, Ciezki J, Reddy CA et al. Effect of increasing radiation doses on local and distant failures in patients with localized prostate cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2008; 71(1): 16– 22.

49. Warde P, Mason M, Ding K et al. Combined androgen deprivation therapy and radiation therapy for locally advanced prostate cancer: a randomised, phase 3 trial. Lancet 2011; 378(9809): 2104– 2111. doi: 10.1016/ S0140‑ 6736(11)61095‑ 7.

50. Mason M, Warde P, Sydes M et al. Defining the need for local therapy in locally advanced prostate cancer: an appraisal of the MRC PR07 study. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol) 2005; 17(4): 217– 218.

51. Widmark A, Klepp O, Solberg A et al. Endocrine treatment, with or without radiotherapy, in locally advanced prostate cancer (SPCG‑ 7/ SFUO‑ 3): an open randomised phase III trial. Lancet 2009; 373(9660): 301– 308. doi: 10.1016/ S0140‑ 6736(08)61815‑ 2.

52. Hanks GE. External‑ beam radiation therapy for clinically localized prostate cancer: patterns of care studies in the United States. NCI Monogr 1988; (7): 75– 84.

53. Swanson GP, Thompson IM. Adjuvant radiotherapy for high‑risk patients following radical prostatectomy. Urol Oncol 2007; 25(6): 515– 519.

54. Bolla M, van Poppel H, Tombal B et al. Postoperative radiotherapy after radical prostatectomy for high‑risk prostate cancer: long‑term results of a randomised controlled trial (EORTC trial 22911). Lancet 2012; 380(9858): 2018– 2027. doi: 10.1016/ S0140‑ 6736(12)61253‑ 7.

55. Wiegel T, Bottke D, Steiner U et al. Phase III postoperative adjuvant radiotherapy after radical prostatectomy compared with radical prostatectomy alone in pT3 prostate cancer with postoperative undetectable prostate‑ specific antigen: ARO 96– 02/ AUO AP 09/ 95. J Clin Oncol 2009; 27(18): 2924– 2930. doi: 10.1200/ JCO.2008.18.9563.

56. Swanson GP, Thompson IM, Tangen C et al. Update of SWOG 8794: adjuvant radiotherapy for pT3 prostate cancer improves metastasis free survival. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2008; 72: S31.

57. Thompson IM, Tangen CM, Paradelo J et al. Adjuvant radiotherapy for pathological T3N0M0 pros­tate cancer significantly reduces risk of metastases and improves survival: long‑term followup of a randomized clinical trial. J Urol 2009; 181(3): 956– 962. doi: 10.1016/ j.juro.2008.11.032.

58. Stephenson AJ, Scardino PT, Kattan MW et al. Predicting the outcome of salvage radiation therapy for recurrent prostate cancer after radical pros­tatectomy. J Clin Oncol 2007; 25(15): 2035– 2041.

59. Siegmann A, Bottke D, Faehndrich J et al. Salvage radiotherapy after prostatectomy –  what is the best time to treat? Radiother Oncol 2012; 103(2): 239– 243. doi: 10.1016/ j.radonc.2011.10.024.

60. Ataman F, Zurlo A, Artignan X et al. Late toxicity following conventional radiotherapy for prostate cancer: analysis of the EORTC trial 22863. Eur J Cancer 2004; 40(11): 1674– 1681.

61. Robinson JW, Moritz S, Fung T. Meta‑analysis of rates of erectile function after treatment of localized prostate carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2002; 54(4): 1063– 1068.

62. Baxter NN, Tepper JE, Durham SB et al. Increased risk of rectal cancer after prostate radiation: a population‑based study. Gastroenterology 2005; 128(4): 819– 824.

63. Liauw SL, Sylvester JE, Morris CG et al. Second malignancies after prostate brachytherapy: incidence of bladder and colorectal cancers in patients with 15 years of potential follow‑up. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2006; 66(3): 669– 673.

64. Zelefsky MJ, Eastham JA, Cronin AM et al. Metastasis after radical prostatectomy or external beam radiotherapy for patients with clinically localized prostate cancer: a comparison of clinical cohorts adjusted for case mix. J Clin Oncol 2010; 28(9): 1508– 1513. doi: 10.1200/JCO.2009.22.2265.